44 “Anti-American Cries Heard in China as 1947 Arrives,” Washington Post, Jan. 1, 1947, p. 4; “Students Blamed: Chinese Beat U.S. Officer in Shanghai,”ibid., Jan. 2, 1947, p. 3; “Students Demand Yanks Leave China,” ibid., Jan. 4, 1947, p. 5. In several newspapers the “beating” of the American (he was struck several times with his own cane) was the first mention at all of the case and the demonstrations; see “Officer Beaten, Anti-U.S. Feeling Grows in China,” St. Louis Post-Dispatch, Jan. 2, 1947, p. 10A; “China Students Beat Americans,” New Orleans Times-Picayune, Jan. 2, 1947, p. 1.

45 “National Virility,” Washington Post, Dec. 22, 1946, p. 4B, but see response by “Outraged Veteran,” ibid., Dec. 27, 1946, p. 6; Malvina Lindsay, “American Emissaries,” ibid., Jan. 9, 1947, p. 10. For an analysis of Cold War ideology that notes this perceived crisis of virility, see Geoffrey Smith, “National Security and Personal Isolation: Sex, Gender, and Disease in the Cold-War U.S.” International History Review, 14 (1992), 307-337.

The resolutely anti-CCP Washington Post also editorialized against military aid to Jiang; see “China’s Constitution,” Washington Post, Jan. 5, 1947, p. 4B; “Marshall’s Statement,” ibid., Jan. 9, 1947, p. 10; “China Mission,” ibid., Jan. 30, 1947, p. 6.

46 “Chinese Students Beat U.S. Officer,” Philadelphia Inquirer, Jan. 2, 1947, p. 8; “Chinese Repeat U.S. Protest,” ibid., Jan. 3, 1947, p. 6; “Chinese Students Oppose Marines,” Christian Science Monitor, Jan. 2, 1947, p. 13; Ronald Stead, “Marshall Exit Tests China Factions,” ibid., Jan. 7, 1947, p. 12; “China Student Marchers Call Yanks Beasts,” Los Angeles Times, Dec. 31, 1946, p. 5; “Chinese Students Intensify Rallies Against U.S. Troops,” ibid., Jan. 4, 1947, p. 1; Polyzoides, “Chinese Student Riots Against U.S. Shocking,” ibid., Jan. 3, 1947, p. 4. Ironically, “Inflammable China,” Christian Science Monitor, Jan. 3, 1947, p. 18, was among the U.S. editorials most sympathetic to the students, and “U.S. Under Fire As China Gets New Constitution,” Los Angeles Times, Jan. 1, 1947, p. 4, was one of the more historically informed analyses of the protests. But the unwillingness to print the word “rape” blunted the impact of such coverage.

47 “Chinese Reds Blamed for Anti-U.S. Wave,” Philadelphia Inquirer, Jan. 4, 1947, p. 5; “Chinese Students Unite to Fight Anti-U.S. Feeling in Colleges,” Washington Post, Jan. 5, 1947, p. 9M; “China Prohibits Demonstrations,” New Orleans Times-Picayune, Jan. 5, 1947, p. 1. The first article here gave no evidence to back up the headline and included misleading statements that stemmed from the refusal to acknowledge that the incident was based on the charge of rape. See also the coverage in Pacific Stars and Stripes, which gave extensive and fairly accurate coverage, but which on Jan. 4, 1947, at 4, predicted that the protests would soon subside, on Jan. 5, at 4, retracted that claim in the face of larger protests, and on Jan. 6, at 4, exaggerated the importance of the pro-American Chinese student faction.

48 “China: Nasty Words,” Newsweek, 29 (Jan. 13, 1947), 40-42; “Chinese Beat Yank; Try to Disrobe Girl,” Chicago Tribune, Jan. 2, 1947, p. 1; William Henry Chamberlain, “Post War Ironies,” Wall Street Journal, Jan. 14, 1947, p. 4; Chamberlain, “Foreign Affairs in Review,” ibid., Jan. 3, 1947, p. 6. Chamberlain insinuated that Chinese anti-Americanism was one legacy of Japanese wartime antiwhite propaganda.

49 “China: New Constitution,” Time, 49 (Jan. 6, 1947), 30, 33; “Painful Surprise,” Time, 49 (an. 13, 1947), 28; see also “Foreign Relations,” Time, 49 (Feb. 10, 1947), 22-23.

50 On Henry Luce’s “paternalism” regarding China, see also T. Christopher Jespersen, American Images of China, 1931-1949 (Stanford, Calif., 1996); on his China policy more generally, see Robert Herzstein, Henry R. Luce: A Political Portrait (NewYork, 1994) and Thomas Griffith, Harry and Teddy: The Turbulent Friendship of Press Lord Henry R Luce and His Favorite Reporter, Theodore H . White ( New York, 1995).

51 See Henry Lieberman in the New York Times, Jan. 2, 1947, p. 11, and Archibald Steele in the New York Herald-Tribune, Dec. 29, 1946, p. 15, and Dec. 30, 1946, p. 3.

52“Chinese Students Again Assail U.S.,” New York Times, Jan. 1, 1947, p. 15; Archibald Steele, “Reds in China Reach a Climax in Abuse of U.S.,” New York Herald-Tribune, Jan. 6, 1947, p. 9. See also Steele, “Marine Faces Life for Rape if Finding Stands,” ibid., Jan. 23, 1947, p. 24, in which he summarized his analysis: “The Christmas Eve affair has done more than any other incident to stir up Chinese resentment against the presence of American troops in China. It was ready-made for the Communists and other groups who have been demanding American withdrawal from China, and they have exploited it to the utmost.” On Steele more generally, see Stephen MacKinnon and Oris Friesen, eds., China Reporting (Berkeley, 1987).

53Whether the sexual double entendre of the New York Herald-Tribune Jan. 6 headline was intentional is impossible to say, but such linguistic excesses in the U.S. press on this case did not correlate with political viewpoints. The New York Times, Jan. 19, 1947, sec. 1, p. 44, described certain court martial testimony as the “climax” of the case, while the Communist Daily Worker, Dec. 30, 1946, p. 2, proclaimed that “Chinese Students, Aroused by Rape, Demonstrate for U.S. Troop Withdrawal.” On gendered discourse in the Cold War, see Frank Costigliola, “The Nuclear Family: Tropes of Gender and Pathology in the Western Alliance,” Diplomatic History, 21 (1997), 163-183; for responses, consult the H-Diplo internet site at http://www.h-net2.msu.edu/-diplo/Costiglioga/htm.

54“Chinese Student Protests,” New York Herald-Tribune, Jan. 4, 1947, p. 12.

55See, e.g., “Furious Peiping Demands U.S. Get Out of China,” Daily Worker, Dec. 31, 1946, p. 2; “‘Anti-American?’ Says Who?” ibid., Jan. 2, 1947, p. 7; “Chinese Students Take Protest to U.S. Envoy,” ibid., Jan. 4, 1947, p. 12; “Bare Third-Degree of Raped Chinese Co-Ed,” ibid., Jan. 22, 1947, p. 2. The leftist U.S. Committee for a Democratic Far Eastern Policy, while attentive to events in China, did not highlight the rape or these protests; see Far East Spotlight, 2 (Feb. 1947), 8, and 2 (March 1947), 8.

Jennings Perry, “Stranger Than Fiction,” PM, Jan. 1, 1947, p. 24. For a sampling of news coverage of the case in PM, see “Peiping Sore at U.S. Marine,” Dec. 30, 1946, p. 8; “Chinese Protests Against GIs Go On,” Jan. 5, 1947, p. 9; “Foreign Round-Up,” Jan. 6, 1947, p. 8. On the impact of the Scottsboro case, see Brownmiller, Against Our Will, chapter 7, and James Goodman, Stories of Scottsboro (New York, 1994).

Some Chinese at the time also connected the Pierson rape to interracial sexual relations in the United States, but in different ways. Economist Ma Yinchu noted in a speech to the Chinese Writers’ League that American blacks would be hanged or burned for raping a white woman, and he asked rhetorically what punishment the GI in this case would receive; see U.S. Consulate, Peiping, Chinese Press Review, #232 (Dec. 31, 1946), 3-4. Randall Gould, the

American editor of the Shanghai Evening Post and Mercury, was quoted in Time, 49 (Feb. 10, 1947), 22-23, as saying “We are beginning to understand what our minorities in the States feel like 24 hours a day.”

57 James White, “Suppose You Are a Chinese Student…” PM, Jan. 2, 1947, p. 6. (None of the other newspapers among the dozen that I surveyed published this AP story.) For a similar analysis, see Epstein, The Unfinished Revolution in China, 396. The phrase “jeep girls” is from 56 “Chinese Students Again Assail U.S.,” New York Times, Jan. 1, 1947, p. 15. For a visual representation of a “jeep girl” from an American military source, see the cartoon by Machin in North China Marine, Dec. 14, 1946, p. 3. For a Chinese editorial asserting that China bore part of the blame because of the “inglorious women” who associated with GIs, see U.S. Consulate, Peiping, Chinese Press Review, #236 (Jan. 6, 1947), 2.

Letters, PM, Jan. 8, 1947, p. 21.

58 “Chinese Students Ask U.S. Troops Quit Country,” York (Pennsylvania) Gazette, Jan. 2, 1947, p. 2; “China Students Beat Americans,” Los Angeles Times, Jan. 2, 1947, p. 7; “Chinese Students Call on U.S. Envoy to Discuss Uproar,” York Gazette, Jan. 4, 1947, pp. 1, 28.

59 Owen Lattimore, “Students Are China’s Hope,” ibid., Jan. 11, 1947, p. 15. On Lattimore’s career, see Robert P. Newman, Owen Lattimore and the “Loss” of China (Berkeley, 1992).

Lindsay, “American Emissaries.”

60 Court Martial, Pierson; “Marine Faces Life for Rape if Finding Stands,” New York Herald-Tribune, Jan. 23, 1947, p. 24. See Cook, “Penetration and Neocolonialism” for the initial Chinese police reports on the case.

Court Martial, Pierson, 4-25 and passim.

61 Ibid., esp. 39, 54, 58, 89-93. The prosecution’s case was weakened by a report by the Chinese doctor that minimized Shen’s injuries. Many Chinese believed that GMD pressure, exerted to avoid conflict with the U.S., was responsible; see a statement from the China Daily News

62 quoted in Daily Worker, Jan. 22, 1947, p. 2, and U.S. Consulate, Peiping, Chinese Press Review, #410 (Aug. 14, 1947), 3. For alleged mistreatment of Shen while being questioned by the Chinese police,

63 see U.S. Consulate, Peiping, Chinese Press Review, #238 (Jan. 8, 1947), 5, but for Hu Shi’s denial of such charges, see ibid., #237 (Jan. 7, 1947),

64 3.Court Martial, Pierson, 32-36, 82-84.

65 Ibid., 62-70 and J1-J5. Key items of contention, as in the more recent O. J. Simpson trial and in the Bill Clinton-Monica Lewinsky case, respectively, were a “bloody glove” and a stained dress. The defense contended that the glove was bloodied when Pierson, on a four-hour drinking bout just prior to the incident, cut his hand on a liquor bottle; see ibid., 14, 79-80, and Exhibit 2. The stained dress was taken as evidence by the police before the trial and, incredibly, was introduced at the trial with holes cut out where the stains had been; see ibid., 100, and Exhibit 7.

【译文】皮尔逊的审判记录，第62-70页，以及J1-J5。类似于最近的辛普森审判和比尔•克林顿—莫妮卡•莱温斯基案件，争论的关键证物有两件：一副 “血手套”和一件带污渍的衣裙。辩词争辩说，皮尔逊喝了四个小时的酒，然后就在案件发生前，手被一个酒瓶子割伤了，手套上的血就是这么来的；参见皮尔逊的 审判记录，第14页，第79-80页，以及证物2。带污渍的衣裙在审判前被警方当作证物拿走，但令人难以置信的是，当这件衣裙在审判中被拿出来的时候，有污渍的地方被剪掉了；参见皮尔逊的审判记录，第100页，以及证物7。

66 Ibid., 12-13. One difficulty for Shen was that at least eight Chinese army employees witnessed the rape, but all claimed to have been deterred from acting by threats from Pritchard, Pierson’s accomplice. Fitzgerald argued with some plausibility, at ibid., K2, that Chinese culture did not encourage people to “interfere in the affairs of others” not of their family. He might have argued, but did not, that the Chinese army command would have looked unfavorably on its members confronting an American soldier.

67 Ibid., K1-K2 (emphasis in original). Masters had charged, at ibid., J2, that the fact that Shen kept her heavy gloves on throughout the sexual encounter demonstrated consent, since removing them would have allowed her to scratch Pierson. Fitzgerald responded, at ibid., K2: “[H]ad the girl consented to the intercourse, she would have removed her gloves to assist him and the fact that she kept them on shows she did not want to assist him.”

68 Ibid., 102-103, and addendum (memorandum from Gen. Samuel Howard, Feb. 21, 1947); on Pritchard’s court martial, see “Marine is Convicted Of Peiping Assault,” New York Times, Feb. 1, 1947, p. 6. On GI response, see “Guilty Verdict Displeases EM [Enlisted Men] in Peiping Area” Pacific Stars and Stripes, Jan. 24, 1947, p. 1.

69 O. S. Colclough, “Pierson, William G.,” June 6, 1947, and attached memorandum from John Sullivan, July 3, 1947 (811.32/1-1748), box 5044, RG 59, NA; Howard, memorandum, Feb. 21, 1947, R. H. Cruzen to Acting Secretary of the Navy, July 8, 1947, and memorandum from SECNAV (JAG) [Sullivan] to CO NDB Terminal Island, Calif., Aug. 11, 1947, all in Pierson file, docket #47-156116F, Office of the Judge Advocate General, Department of the Navy, Washington (D.C.) Navy Yard. See also “Service Men Exonerated,” New York Times, Aug. 12, 1947, p. 5. Forrestal had lunch on July 3, 1947-the same day as Sullivan’s first memo reversing the conviction-with Howard, who in February had sustained the verdict, but whether the two men spoke about the case cannot be determined; see James Forrestal Diaries (7 vols., typescript), Seeley G. Mudd Library, Princeton University, 6, 7: 1709, and Walter Millis, ed., The Forrestal Diaries (New York, 1951), 289. Pierson’s Congressional representative from South Carolina, John Riley, had also made inquiries about the case, but the impact of those inquiries on the reversal of the verdict cannot be determined; see Helen Lamberson, memorandum, March 31, 1947, in Pierson file, Washington Navy Yard.

70 Available Navy Department records for the year ending June 30, 1946, indicate that it was not unusual for court martial sentences for rape to be reduced by the Judge Advocate General or by the General Court Martial Sentence Review Board, but overturning convictions for rape was uncommon. Sentences for assault with intent to rape were frequently reduced on review, with intoxication of the assailant often given as a reason for such reduction. See “General Court Martial Sentence Review Board, Interim Report, for period ending 30 June 1946,” esp. 36-38, and “General Court Martial Sentence Review Board, 19 Sept. 1946,” esp. 53-55, both in box 64, Records of Secretary of the Navy James Forrestal, Records of the Department of the Navy, Record Group 80, National Archives, College Park, Md.

71 See U.S. Consulate, Peiping, Chinese Press Review, #410 (Aug. 14, 1947), 3; ibid., #411 (Aug. 15, 1947), 3; ibid., #412 (Aug. 18, 1947), 3; U.S. Consulate, Shanghai, Chinese Press Review, #423 (Aug. 13, 1947), 4; ibid., #424 (Aug. 14, 1947), 5.

See Stuart to Secretary of State, June 21, 1947 (811.32/6-2147), June 22, 1947 (811.32/6-2247), June 24, 1947 (811.32/6-2447), box 4662, RG 59, NA. See also the protest by the Committee for a Democratic Far Eastern Policy: ‘Justice For All?” Far East Spotlight, 2 (July 1947), 4.

72 Speer II, “Memorandum,” Jan. 3, 1947. See also Stuart to Secretary of State, Jan. 8, 1947, Foreign Relations, 1947, 7: 13-15: “Embassy considers that, on the whole, demonstrations may best be interpreted as a manifestation of general discontent and unrest caused by overall political-economic situation existing in China.” The resentment against the Chinese government “which cannot be openly expressed is being turned almost entirely against the U.S.”

73Stuart to Secretary of State, Feb. 12, 1947 (893.00/2-1247) and Feb. 15, 1947 (893.00/2-1547), including cables from Consul-General Streeper, in microfilm LM069, reel 5, RG 59, NA.

74Stuart (paraphrasing Krentz) to Secretary of State, Jan. 10, 1947 (893.00/1-1047), ibid.

75Paul Meyer and Fern Cavender, U.S. Consulate, Shanghai, “Memorandum,” June 7, 1947 (893.00/6-1847), ibid., reel 7.

76Myers to Stuart, Feb. 20, 1947 (893.00/2-2047), ibid., reel 5; James Speer II, “Liquidation of Chinese Liberals,” Far Eastern Survey, July 23, 1947, pp. 160-162; Col. George McHenry and J. A. McNeil, Intelligence Memorandum No. 58 (March 10, 1947), in box 22, World War II Geographical Area Files, RG 127, NA.

77See Pepper, Civil War in China, and Yick, Making Urban Revolution in China.

78On the Chinese aphorism about soldiers, see Edwin Moise, Modern China: A History (New York, 1994), 32; see also Court Martial, Pierson, 105, and U.S. Consulate, Shanghai, Chinese Press Review, #253 (Jan. 20, 1947), 7-9.

79Gerda Lerner, The Creation of Patriarchy (New York, 1986), 76-80.

80Niccolo Machiavelli, The Prince, trans. David Wootton (Indianapolis, 1995), 42.

81 The literature on the myth of the black rapist is voluminous; see, e.g., Joel Williamson, A Rage for Order: Black-White Relations in the American South Since Emancipation (New York, 1986), and Jacquelyn Dowd Hall, Revolt Against Lynching: Jessie Daniel Ames and the Women’s Campaign Against Lynching (New York, 1979). On the racist use of such charges by Germans after World War I and the impact on U.S. foreign policy, see William Keylor, “‘How They Advertised France’: The French Propaganda Campaign in the United States During the Breakup of the Franco-American Entente, 1918-1923,” Diplomatic History, 17 (1993), 351-373, esp. 369- 371. On the myth of Native Americans as rapists, see James Axtell, “The White Indians of Colonial America,” in Axtell, The European and the Indian: Essays in the Ethnohistory of Colonial North America (New York, 1981), 181-182; William Truettner, ed., The West as America: Reinterpreting Images of the Frontier 1820-1920 (Washington, D.C., 1991), 162-165; Susan Jeffords, “Protection Racket,” Women’s Review of Books, 8 (July 1991), 10; Annette Kolodny, “Among the Indians: The Uses of Captivity,” New York Times Book Review, Jan. 31, 1993, pp. 1, 26-29.

82 On American perceptions of Chinese as rapists of white women, see John B. Powell, My Twenty-Five years in China (New York, 1945), 156-157, and the film Shanghai Express (1932), discussed in Jonathan Spence, “Shanghai Express,” in Mark Carnes, ed., Past Imperfect: History According to the Movies (New York, 1995), 208-211. On the representation of Japanese troops as a sexual threat to white women, see John Dower, War Without Mercy: Race and Power in the Pacific War (New York 1986), esp. 189, and Tanaka, Hidden Horrors, chapter 3.

Perry, “Stranger Than Fiction.”

83 On the varied forms and purposes of military rape, see Enloe, Does Khaki Become You? and Tanaka, Hidden Horrors, 105-109.

84 Quoted in Richard Raynor, “The Warrior Besieged,” New York Times Magazine, June 22, 1997, pp. 24-29, at 29, emphasis in original.

85 U.S. Consulate, Peiping, China Press Review, #236 (Jan. 6, 1947), 4. For statements by U.S. officials indicating the desire of U.S. soldiers in Asia to return home after World War II, see Forrestal Diaries, April 25, 1947, 7: 1593, Mudd Library; and Rep. Mike Mansfield to Harry Truman, Nov. 7, 1945, Harry S. Truman Papers, Official File, Truman Library, Independence, Mo. See also the later comments of a U.S. Army official that “There is more rape during an occupation because soldiers have more time on their hands,” quoted in Brownmiller, Against Our Will, 78.